Davide's Notes

As Tim rightfully observes, a key point in developing skills related to thinking theologically (and not only to that!) is the ability to see the bigger picture, i.e. to integrate.

Today I am still a bit sick, sore throat and all, and I am not much in the mood of reviewing Greek grammar or reading lots of Church history sources. Having a bit of spare time, I thought I could briefly go through the list of the bishops of Rome (or "Popes", if you want) till 461 CE, writing a few words about each of them, with short references to [what in my erratic opinion are some of the] important events of their time. It is Rome-centric, yes, but Rome was actually, until at least Constantine, the center of political power and, as such, had non-negligible influence (read English understatement here) on Church history issues. On the other hand, it would also be certainly interesting to redo the exercise with the bishops of Alexandria, or Byzantium.

I will take the list and most of the information about the bishops themselves from the Catholic Encyclopedia and from the Wikipedia List of Popes. I am not very much interested in this post in discussing historical accuracy: for example, it is well known that the names of the first popes are possibly a fiction, and certainly they were not called "pope". (Marcellinus [296-304] is, or at least so I found out, the first Roman bishop for which there is documented use of the term "pope".) So, see this just as a didactical device for the sake of briefly reviewing early Church history. I will also skip Peter as first pope. Information about the Roman emperors come mainly from the Timelines for Ancient Roman History and from the Wikipedia List of Roman Emperors.

I think that the outcome of this short exercise is to make one aware that history does not happen in a vacuum, and that while one is sometimes focused to study individual thinkers or thought systems, it is essential to keep one's eyes open to the overall context (or, more formally, to both synchronicity and diachronicity).

Name	When	Roman emperors and other major events	Notes
Linus	67-76	Nero becomes emperor in 54. In 67 Vespasian and Titus submit the Jews (70 fall of Jerusalem). In 68 Nero is killed. In 69 Vespasian is proclaimed emperor.	Irenaeus mentions Linus in AH III.3.3, linking him to the Linus of 2 Tim 4:21. This is not proved. As for his alleged martyrdom, we are not aware of persecutions in the period between Nero and Domitian (and then one should critically evaluate even the persecution under Nero).
Anacletus (and/or Cletus)	76-88	79 Vespasian dies. Titus succeeds him (he was quite unpopular at first. Remember his affair with Berenice). A month later, the eruption of Mount Vesuvius destroys Pompei and Herculaneum (this was often seen as a divine sign - perhaps against the destruction of the Jerusalem Temple). He inaugurated the Colosseum and the Thermae. Domitian becomes emperor in 81.	The chronological uncertainties at this early stage are such that this pope could in reality correspond to zero, one, or more persons (for example there is no trace of him in Tertullian; but then Tertullian also does not mention Linus). Allegedly died as a martyr. Under Domitian begins the so-called second persecution. For it, we have some testimony from Eusebius ("[Domitian] was in fact the second that stirred up a persecution against us", HE III.17) and from Tertullian ("Domitian, too, a man of Nero's type in cruelty, tried his hand at persecution; but as he had something of the human in him, he soon put an end to what he had begun, even restoring again those whom he had banished.", Apology V). Dio Cassius also has references to what maybe a persecution against Christians. Prof. Doughty writes that Any appeals to writings such as 1 Clement or the Apocalypse of John, however, are circular arguments, since the assumption of a persecution of Christians during the reign of Domitian is also used to date these writings. Almost everything else Keresztes relates is pure speculation. The bottom line is that we have no real evidence for any persecution of Christians under Domitian.
Clement I	88-97	Nerva becomes emperor in 96 and adopts Trajan in 97.	Not much ground to identify him with the Clement of Phil 4:3, as suggested instead by a number of ancient writers (among them, Origen, Eusebius, Epiphanius, Jerome). The well-known Clemens Romanus of 1 Clement. Perhaps the same Clement mentioned by Hermas (vision II, 4.3). That he was martyrized (remember the typical portraits of Clement thrown overboard with an anchor tied to his neck) seems to be a late addition.
Evaristus	97-105	Trajan emperor in 98.
Alexander I	105-115	Pliny corresponds with Trajan about the Christians in 111-112.	Traditionally martyred (no evidence). Ignatius of Antioch dies as a martyr about 110 in Rome.
Sixtus I	115-125	Tacitus' Annals published in 116. Hadrian becomes emperor in 117. Suetonius writes his Lives of the Caesars between 119 and 121.	Also traditionally designed as a martyr (no evidence). The Rescript of Hadrian (known to us only via Eusebius, HE IV.9) ordering that an accuser must submit proof to his claims against Chrstians is dated around 125.
Telesphorus	125-136	131 revolt of Bar Kochba, finally suppressed in 135.	The first Roman bishop actually designated by Justin as a martyr. Eusebius says that Telesphorus was one of the bishops who always celebrated Easter on Sunday (see notes on the Easter controversy).
Hyginus	136-140	Antoninus becomes emperor in 138.	According to Justin the famous Gnostic Valentinus came to Rome in Hyginus' time, remaining there until Anicetus became bishop. The Gnostic Cerdo also apparently lived in Rome during Hyginus.
Pius I	140-154		In 150 Justin writes his First Apology, addressed to the emperor Antoninus. Both the Liber Pontificalis and the Muratorian Canon say that Pius would be the brother of Herams, the author of the Shepherd. Pius excommunicated Marcion.
Anicetus	155-166	161 Marcus Aurelius becomes emperor, together with Lucius Verus.	According to Irenaeus, Polycarp visited Rome at the time of Anicetus, and they had some discussions about Easter. See again the notes on the Easter controversy. Anicetus forbid Montanism (and actively opposed Gnosticism and Marcionism). Around 155 Polycarp is martyred. This is one of the few instances of persecution we know under Antoninus. In 160 Justin writes his Second Apology, addressed to the Senate. Around 165 Justin is martyred in Rome. Hegesippus visited Rome during Anicetus' pontificate ("And when I was in Rome, I made a succession up to Anicetus, whose deacon was Eleuterus. And in each succession and in each city all is according to the ordinances of the law and the Prophets and the Lord.", HE IV.22).
Soter	166-175	169 L. Verus dies. In 174 M. Aurelius writes his Meditations.	Harnack thinks that 2 Clement is a homily which Soter sent to Corinth (this would explain the later connection with 1 Clement). Others think that 2 Clement could have been written (perhaps as an Alexandrian homily) around 150.
Eleutherius	175-189	Commodus becomes emperor in 180. Said to be one of the worst Roman emperors.	Athenagoras writes his περι χριστιανων around 177. In 177 we have the persecution of Lyon and Vienne (apparently approved by the stoic Marcus Aurelius, who had little time for Christianity), after which Irenaeus becomes bishop of Lyon. Passion of the Scilitan Martyrs written about 180. Circa 180 we can also date the writings of Celsus (known only through Origen). Montanism seems widespread in this period, and Tertullian may refer to Eleutherius when he speaks of a Roman bishop who acted against them. It is during the episcopate of Eleutherius that Irenaeus writes his Against Heresies. The Muratorian Canon (allegedly written in Rome) is dated by some between 180 and 200.
Victor I	189-199	Commodus murdered in 193 (and the Senate decreed his damnatio memoriae). Pertinax emperor, also promptly murdered; chaotic situation; eventually Septimius Severus becomes emperor (quite unpopular with the Senate, but popular with the citizens, having contrasted the corruption and degeneration of the reign of Commodus). Byzantium captured and destroyed. In 198 his son Caracalla is proclaimed Augustus.	Victor is known for his intolerance against the quartodecimans; Irenaeus blamed his severity and wrote to him, urging him not to break relationships with the bishops of Asia. The positive attitude of Commodus for Christians is attributed by Hippolytus (Ref. IX.7) to the influence of a woman named Marcia, "a concubine of Commodus, who was a God-loving female", and who interacted with Victor. Septimius Severus as well regarded the Christians kindly in his first year of reign. According to Jerome (De Vir. Ill. 53), Victor was the first to write about theology in Latin (but this is doubtful).
Zephyrinus	199-217	209 Geta proclaimed Augustus. Caracalla emperor in 212 (he murdered his brother Geta). Great massacre at Alexandria in 215, ordered by Caracalla. In 217 Macrinus is elected emperor.	In 200 Tertullian writes the Liber Apologeticus. In 202 Septimius Severus enacted a law forbidding conversions to Christianity. Also in 202 (or 203) Perpetua and Felicity became martyrs. Another known martyr under Severus is Leonides, the father of Origen. In 212 Hippolytus makes his appearance as presbyter of the Roman Church (and does not have kind words for Zephyrinus) and tries to fight against Monarchians and Patripassians.
Callistus I	217-222	In 218 some troops make Bassianus (priest of the god Elagabalus, and himself also called Elagabalus) emperor. Quite an eccentric personality, it seems (according at least to the Historia Augusta, notoriously unreliable), which contributed to make him a symbol of the 19th century Decadent movement. In 219 the temple of god Elagabalus is erected in Rome. Alexander Severus becomes emperor in 222. His mother (Julia Mammaea) was a friend of Origen, and apparently had quite some influence over her son; Alexander Severus had in his private chapel busts of Orpheus, Abraham, Apollonius of Tyana and Jesus.	Cf. again Hippolytus, who was quite upset for Callistus' theology and for his practice of the absolution of all repented sins (Tertullian is also not mild against him). Callistus excommunicated Sabellius (and condemned Hippolytus as a ditheist). Hippolytus dedicated his work on the resurrection to Julia Mammaea.
Urban I	222-230
Pontian	230-235	Maximinus Thrax emperor in 235 (the first barbarian to be emperor; he never set foot in Rome).	231 Origen is condemned at Alexandria; Pontian then presides a synod in Rome to confirm the condemnation. Martyred under Maximinus (perhaps dying because of the unhealthy conditions of the Sardinia mines to which he was exiled, together with his rival Hippolytus), who reversed the tolerant policy of Alexander Severus toward Christians. Hippolytus finally came to an agreement with Pontian, thus ending a schism.
Anterus	235-236		Said also to be martyred under Maximinus.
Fabian	236-250	Gordianus I and II emperors in 238. Killed. Maximus and Balbinus declared emperors also in 238. Also killed. Gordianus III emperor. Philippus the Arabian succeeds him in 244 (according to Eusebius, he would have been the first Christian Roman emperor - doubtful). Killed in 248 by Decius, who becomes emperor.	Eusebius relates the story of the extraordinary election of Fabian to bishop in HE VI.29. Martyred under Decius. He was higly esteemed by Cyprian. Decius starts a systematic persecution of the Christians, with the goal of restoring the religions and institutions of ancient Rome (this will bring about among other things the problem of the lapsi).
Cornelius	251-253	Valerian emperor in 253 (together with his son Gallienus).	Opposed by Novatian (according to whom not even a bishop could remit grave sins like apostasy and murder); but Cyprian supports Cornelius. Exiled to Civitavecchia under Trebonus Gallus (one of the ephemeral emperors after Decius and before Valerian).
Lucius I	253-254		He was sent in exile soon after his consecration, and probably returned as soon as Valerian became emperor. Still opposition with Novatian. He is referred to in several letters of Cyprian.
Stephen I	254-257	Edict of Valerian against the Christians in 257. This obliged Christians to participate in the national cult of the pagan gods. A later edict (in 258) ordered bishops, priests and deacon to be put to death.	Stephen, in the controversy on baptism against Cyprian, appears to be one of the first to make appeal to Matt 16:18 to justify the supremacy of Rome. This text will start to really become theologically important with Damasus in 382.
Sixtus II	257-258	Postumus proclaimed emperor in Gaul in 258. Great confusion.	He restored relations with the African and Eastern Churches after the damage provoked by his predecessor Stephen. Martyr due to the edict of Valerian of 258. (cf. Cyprian, Ep. LXXX)
Dionysius	260-268	Gallienus (Valerian's son) sole emperor in 260. Also in 260, edict of toleration for Christians (but Christianity was still a banned religion). M. Aurelius Claudius Gothicus (Claudius II) emperor in 268.	The time span between the death of Sixtus II and the election of Dionysius was apparently due to the violence of the persecutions of Valerian, which did not make it easy to elect a new bishop. We have the letters between this Dionysius and bishop Dionysius of Alexandria concerning baptism and logos christology. According to Eusebius, the synod of Antioch which condemned Paul of Samosata wrote a letter to pope Dionysius.
Felix I	269-274	Quintillus and then Aurelian emperors in 270. In 273 Aurelian destroys Palmyra (first captured in 272, defeating Zenobia). In 274, decree against Christians. Thousands killed in Rome. After the death of Aurelian (275), a period of religious tolerance without persecution.	In 269, the monk Valentine (the later Saint Valentine) allegedly refused to deny Christ before Claudius and was martyred. Felix probably wrote a letter to the synod of Antioch containing an exposition of the doctrine of the Trinity against Paul of Samosata.
Eutychian	275-283	Tacitus (claiming to descend from the historian Gaius Cornelius Tacitus) elected emperor in 276. Chaotic situation. Also in 276, Florianus elected emperor in Rome, M. Aurelius Probus in the East. In 282, Carus emperor.	That he was martyred (as tradition has it) seems difficult to believe, since we don't know of persecutions in this period.
Caius	283-296	Diocletian becomes emperor in 284. Interesting that before Diocletian, between 235 and 284 there was about 20 to 25 emperors. His chosen title was "Dominus et deus". Maximian appointed Caesar and then Augustus in 286. Galerius (east) and Constantius Chlorus (west) appointed Caesars in 293.	Still lived in a time of peace.
Marcellinus	296-304	Galerius persecutes Christians in 297. In 303 the last general persecution of Christians begins (until 311). In 306, Diocletian and Maximian abdicate, and Galerius and Constantius Chlorus become Augusti, with Flavius Severus and Maximinus (later Constantine) as Caesars. Maxentius (son of Maximian) proclaimed Augustus also in 306. Licinius also appointed Augustus. Lots of struggles. Last but not least, Constantine is proclaimed finally August in 306.	According to the Liber Pontificalis, during the persecution led by Galerius, Marcellinus offered incense to idols, but repented shortly afterwards, and was eventually executed (dubious). This story will be later taken up by the donatists in the year 400, who had strong opinions against the lapsi.
Marcellus I	308-309	Maxentius, in 309, expels Marcellus from Rome.	In this period, grave dissentions within the Roman Church on the readmittance of the lapsi.
Eusebius	309/310	Maxentius expels Eusebius as well.	Ditto as above on the problem of the lapsi. The question was whether the apostates could be readmitted to the Church: the Roman Church said yes, after proper penance.
Miltiades	311-314	Edict of Milan (edict of toleration) in 311: the end of the great persecution. "Conversion" of Constantine in 312 (battle at the Milvian bridge against Maxentius).	In the Lateran Synod of 313 Donatus was condemned as a heretic; Caecilian was then considered the legitimate bishop of Carthage. Constantine wrote a letter about the donatist dispute to Miltiades and one Mark (Eusebius, HE X.5), the latter sometimes identified as the pope Marcus of 336. According to the Liber Pontificalis, at the time of Miltiades Manichaeans were found in Rome.
Sylvester I	314-335	Constantine defeats Licinius at Chrysopolis and soon after Constantine had him assassinated. Council of Nicaea, 326. In 330 Constantinople becomes the new capital.	Amazing that we have so little reliable information about Sylvester, who was pontiff for quite a long time, during a most important period of history. He was represented at Nicaea and probably convened a council at Rome to condemn Arius. His relations with Constantine are all but proved. It is in this period that the great roman churches of St. Peter, Santa Croce, and Lateran are built.
Marcus	336
Julius I	337-352	In 337 Constantine is baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, and soon after he dies. The new Augusti are the three sons of Constantine, Constantinus, Constans, Constantius. Constantinus allows Athanasius to return to Alexandria. Constans kills Constantinus in 340; he will then be killed himself by Magnentius in 350, who will be defeated by Constantius in 351.	The Arians in Egypt (not happy with the restoration of Athanasius as bishop of Alexandria brought about by Constantinus) ask Julius to recognize their own bishop Pistus into communion with Rome. Athanasius' supporters also send envoys to Julius. The synod of Antioch in 341 renews the ban on Athanasius (sending the proceedings to both pope Julian and emperor Constans), who is sent again into exile. So Athanasius goes to Rome himself to see Julius, and the same does the also exiled Marcellus of Ancyra. Julian wanted to have a synod in Rome in 342 to discuss the issues, but the Arian bishops refused to participate. In the end Julius ruled in favor of Athanasius and Marcellus, and against the Arians (but Athanasius was not restored to his see until the death of his rival bishop George, in 346). The presence of Athanasius in Rome helped to spread knowledge in the city about monastic life.
Liberius	352-366	Julian (the so-called Apostate) succeeds Constantius in 361 and re-establishes pagan cults (stopped the persecution of pagans, and the destruction of pagan temples); according to Socrates Scholasticus he believed himself to be Alexander the Great in another body. In 363 he ordered the Jerusalem temple to be rebuilt (this did not work out very well, though, as Ammianus Marcellinus lets us know). Jovian succeeds him in 363 and re-establishes Christianity. Murdered a year later. In 364 Valentinian (west) and Valens (east) become Augusti.	The earliest pope (and the only one in this list) that did not become a saint. He had a hard time with the Arian emperor Constantius, and eventually was temporarily exiled to Thrace (with antipope Felix II settled in Rome), to be later restored, as Sulpicius Severus wrote in 403, ob seditiones Romanas. The controversial council of Rimini took place in 359, but Liberius did not take part in it. After Constantius' death (361) he cancelled the decrees of the council, and re-admitted into communion with Rome the more moderate among the Arians. This might have helped to create the impression that Liberius had fallen to the Arians (as it could seem from Hilary's Adversum Constantium, written in 360), although this is a debated point.
Damasus I	366-383	In 369 Valentinian names his son Gratian as Augustus. In 370 Valentinian writes an edict to pope Damasus prohibiting bishops, priests, monks, nuns, to frequent the houses of widows and virgins, and to receive gifts, legacies and inheritances from them. In 375 Valentinian dies and his other son Valentinian II becomes Augustus. Edict of Gratian for religious freedom in 378. Theodosius made Augustus in 378. Under the influence of Ambrose of Milan, Gratian prohibits pagan worship in Rome and removes the altar of Victory from the Roman senate-house in 382. Archadius son of Theodosius made Augustus in 383 (when Gratian dies).	The election of Damasus was supported by the followers of former antipope Felix II and was not without trouble (Valentinian I had to intervene to restore order). The figure of Damasus himself is not crystal clear, for example in matters of morality. Jerome was for a while his personal secretary, and it is in this period that the Vulgate gets written. In Rome, synods of 368 and 369, against Apollinarism and Macedonianism; Damasus excommunicated the Arian bishop of Milan Auxentius in 369-370. But when Basil of Caesarea asked Damasus to help him against Arianism, Damasus' support was not without doubts. Probably an important part of Damasus' role as bishop was to make Christianity socially acceptable for the upper classes (with some inherent ambiguity: for example, the pagan praefect Praetextatus is known to have said to Damasus, that if he could obtain the bishopric of Rome, he himself would immediately embrace Christianity). Linked to this and to the idea that the real glory of Rome was Christian and not pagan is possibly his well-known theological thought about the primacy of Rome. In 381, Council of Costantinople (called by Theodosius), whose 4 disciplinary canons discuss 1) condemnation of Arianism, Macedonianism and Apollinarianism; 2) limits upon bishop influence; 3) the invalidity of the consecration of Maximus (the rival of Gregory of Nazianzus) as bishop of Constantinople; and 4) the pre-eminence of the bishop of Constantinople over other bishops, but after the bishop of Rome. In 383, the then manichaen Augustine arrives in Rome.
Siricius	384-399	In 387 Maximus descends into Italy and Valentinian II flees; Maximus defeated by Theodosius in 388, Valentinian II comes back as the emperor of the West. In 389 Theodosius and his son Honorius enter in Rome. 390: the massacre by Theodosius at Thessalonica. In 391 paganism is forbidden. Eugenius made Augustus in 392 after the murder of Valentinian II. Also in 392, Jerome's De Viris Illustribus. In 394, Theodosius wins over Eugenius, and Honorius becomes emperor of the West. In 395 Theodosius dies: Archadius becomes emperor of the East.	The first pope for which we have documented decretals. In 390-392, synods in Rome (later confirmed by a synod of northern-italian bishops, to which Ambrose participated) condemn the monk Jovinian and bishop Bonosus (who said that after Jesus Mary had several other children and who was against Mary's virginity).
Anastasius I	399-401		Remembered chiefly for his condemnation of Origenism. A friend of Jerome, Augustine, and Paulinus of Nola.
Innocent I	401-417	The imperial court is transferred by Honorius to Ravenna in 404. The siege of Rome in 408 by Alaric and the Visigoths. Accession of the younger Theodosius in the East. Second siege of Rome in 409. Attalus made emperor. In 410, the sack of Rome by the Visigoths.	John Chrysostomus appeals to him against Theophilus of Alexandria. In 410, at the time of the sack of Rome by the Goths, he was in Ravenna visiting Honorius. In 417, council of Carthage against Pelagius (who was also vehemently opposed by Innocent).
Zosimus	417-418		In 417 the pelagian Coelestius appears before Zosimus; Coelestius plays his cards well and somewhat convinces Zosimus that he had been unjustly condemned in Carthage. Pelagius himself seems to convince Zosimus of his orthodoxy. But then, after in 418 the African bishops sent a letter to him and (perhaps more importantly) after the anti-pelagian steps of emperor Honorius, Zosimus declares Pelagius an heretic. Apparently he endowed some western bishops with special papal vicariate powers (later revoked by Boniface).
Boniface I	418-422		He continued the opposition to pelagianism. The circumstances of his election (with Galla Placidia asking Honorius to put an end to the debates about the succession, Honorius resetting elections and exiling both contenders) are worth reading.
Celestine I	422-432	Valentinian III becomes emperor of the West in 425.	Nestorius becomes bishop of Constantinople in 428. In 430, a synod in Rome presided by Celestine condemns Nestorius. In 431, Council of Ephesus, called by Theodosius II and presided by Cyril of Alexandria; it was also chiefly concerned with the condemnation of nestorianism. Celestine is known to have bitterly fought Pelagians and Novatians. He sent St. Patrick to Ireland.
Sixtus III	432-440		Accepting the decisions of the Council of Ephesus, he is known to have built Santa Maria Maggiore, dedicated to "Mary, the Mother of God", in connection with the ephesian title Theotokos.
Leo I	440-461	Huns ravage the Eastern Empire in c. 441. In 446, peace between Attila and the Eastern Empire. Attila dies in 453. Valentinian III dies in 455. Also in 455, sack of Rome by the Vandals.	There would be quite a lot to say about Leo. It was he who met Attila in 452 when he invaded Italy (and, traditionally, so impressed him that he withdrew). The doctrine of Petrine supremacy to its fullness. In 449, "Robber Council of Ephesus". In 451, Council of Chalcedon, repudiating the Eutychian doctrine of monophysitism.